A history of the Drakensberg San

Hunters on Horseback: A History of the Eastern Bushmen or the Drakensberg San

A Detailed Historical Summary of Patricia Vinnicombe’s initial chapters in her seminal book, “The People of the Eland”.

Patricia Vinnicombe traces the final centuries of San independence in eastern southern Africa in “People of the Eland”. She examines how hunter-gatherer communities occupying the Drakensberg, KwaZulu-Natal Midlands and Eastern Cape adapted to changing circumstances brought about by the arrival of African farming communities, European settlers and new technologies such as the horse. Ultimately, it is the story of a people who resisted dispossession for generations before their independent way of life disappeared during the nineteenth century.

The Eastern San Before Colonial Expansion (20,000+ BP / before c. 18,000 BCE)

The San were among the earliest inhabitants of southern Africa. Archaeological evidence suggests that hunter-gatherer communities occupied the Drakensberg and surrounding regions for at least 20,000 years, and probably much longer. These communities survived through hunting game and gathering wild plant foods, moving seasonally across extensive territories.

The eastern San occupied the mountains, foothills and river valleys of what are today KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Lesotho. They lived in small family groups and used rock shelters that later became canvases for the extraordinary paintings for which the Drakensberg is famous.

Their knowledge of the landscape was profound. They understood the seasonal movements of game, the locations of water sources, and the medicinal properties of plants. For thousands of years, this way of life proved remarkably successful.

Contact with African Farming Communities(1,450–950 BP / c. AD 500–1000 and later)

Between approximately 1,450 and 950 BP (AD 500–1000), farming communities speaking Bantu languages expanded into eastern southern Africa. Over the following centuries, they established settlements throughout areas that had traditionally been occupied by hunter-gatherers.

Relations between San communities and farmers were complex. There was trade and exchange, but also competition for land and resources. Livestock introduced by farming communities represented a valuable source of food and wealth. Over time, some San groups began raiding cattle and sheep, particularly when traditional hunting territories became restricted.

These interactions created a frontier that long pre-dated European colonisation and laid the foundations for later conflicts.

European Expansion and the Frontier (298 BP onward / AD 1652 onward)

The establishment of the Dutch settlement at the Cape in 1652 (298 BP) marked the beginning of a new phase in frontier history. During the eighteenth century, pastoral farmers expanded steadily into the interior, occupying grazing lands and establishing permanent farms.

As settlement expanded, game became scarcer and access to traditional hunting grounds diminished. Many San communities increasingly depended upon livestock raiding as a means of survival. Settlers responded by organising armed commandos to recover stolen stock and punish those responsible.

By approximately 250–150 BP (AD 1700–1800), frontier warfare had become a persistent feature of life across much of the eastern Cape and later Natal.

The Horse Revolution(180–120 BP / c. AD 1770–1830)

One of the most dramatic developments in eastern San history was the adoption of the horse. By the late eighteenth century, some San groups had acquired horses through trade, capture and raiding. They quickly became skilled horsemen and transformed their military capabilities.

Mounted San bands could move rapidly over long distances, conduct highly effective livestock raids, and retreat into mountainous refuges before pursuing forces could respond. Their intimate knowledge of the terrain, combined with their traditional hunting skills, made them formidable opponents.

This period, approximately 180–120 BP (AD 1770–1830), represents the height of mounted San resistance and gives rise to this article’s title, Hunters on Horseback.

The Drakensberg as a Refuge (170–80 BP / c. AD 1780–1870)

Throughout the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Drakensberg became one of the last major refuges of independent San communities. The mountains offered protection through their steep terrain, hidden valleys and extensive network of rock shelters.

The escarpment provided access to routes leading into present-day Lesotho, enabling San groups to evade colonial patrols and maintain connections with neighbouring communities. The region became a centre of resistance from which mounted raiding parties could operate.

Many of the rock paintings found in the Drakensberg today were created during this turbulent period and provide valuable insights into the changing world of the San.

The Mfecane and Regional Upheaval (135–110 BP / c. AD 1815–1840)

The period known as the Mfecane or Difaqane profoundly affected all peoples living in eastern southern Africa. Between approximately 135 and 110 BP (AD 1815–1840), widespread conflict, migration and political restructuring reshaped the region.

The rise of powerful chiefdoms, including the Zulu kingdom under Shaka, created new pressures on smaller communities. San groups often found themselves caught between expanding African polities and advancing colonial frontiers. Some entered alliances, while others were displaced from long-established territories.

Fort Nottingham and the Natal Frontier (94 BP / AD 1856)

Fort Nottingham occupies an important place in the history of San resistance in KwaZulu-Natal. Established in 1856 (94 BP), the fort was part of a broader colonial strategy to secure the Natal frontier.

Settlers in the Midlands frequently complained of livestock theft and insecurity, much of which was attributed to San raiding parties operating from the foothills and mountain refuges of the Drakensberg. Colonial authorities responded by establishing military and administrative centres such as Fort Nottingham to coordinate patrols and suppress resistance.

The fort, therefore, represents more than simply a colonial outpost. It also symbolises the final stages of a prolonged struggle between an expanding settler society and indigenous hunter-gatherer communities seeking to preserve their independence.

Commandos and the Suppression of Resistance (130–80 BP / c. AD 1820–1870)

From the 1820s onward, colonial authorities and settler communities increasingly relied upon mounted commandos to deal with livestock raiding and frontier insecurity. These expeditions were often highly destructive and targeted entire San communities rather than individual offenders.

Shelters were attacked, food supplies disrupted, and families dispersed. Historical records from the period frequently describe such campaigns as successful military operations, but viewed from a modern perspective, they formed part of a broader process of dispossession and cultural destruction.

By approximately 80 BP (AD 1870), organised San resistance in much of the Drakensberg had effectively been broken.

Cultural Adaptation During the Nineteenth Century (150–70 BP / c. AD 1800–1880)

Despite overwhelming pressures, San communities demonstrated remarkable adaptability. They incorporated horses into their way of life, adopted new technologies and formed strategic alliances when circumstances demanded.

Some San individuals became attached to African chiefdoms, while others worked for settlers or participated in emerging frontier economies. These adaptations illustrate the resilience and ingenuity of San communities during a period of immense change.

Nevertheless, adaptation alone could not overcome the cumulative effects of military pressure, population growth and land loss.

The End of Independent San Society (80–50 BP / c. AD 1870–1900)

The final decades of the nineteenth century witnessed the collapse of independent San society throughout much of the Drakensberg and Natal. Many individuals were killed during frontier conflicts, while others were absorbed into neighbouring African communities or colonial labour systems.

Traditional hunter-gatherer lifeways became increasingly impossible to maintain as access to land and resources disappeared. By approximately 50 BP (AD 1900), independent San communities had largely vanished from the region.

The disappearance of the San was not the result of a single event but rather the culmination of centuries of pressure arising from conflict, displacement and social change.

Rock Art as Historical Evidence (450–80 BP / c. AD 1500–1870)Although this article focuses primarily on history, rock art remains an important source of evidence. Paintings depicting horses, cattle, riders and scenes of conflict provide a unique San perspective on the dramatic changes unfolding around them.

The appearance of horses in particular reflects developments that occurred after approximately 180 BP (AD 1770). Such images document the transformation of San society during the final period of its independence.

Together with written records, these paintings enable historians to reconstruct the experiences of communities whose voices are otherwise largely absent from the historical record.

Final remarks

Vinnicombe’s book presents a compelling account of the final centuries of San independence in eastern southern Africa. It describes a people who survived in the Drakensberg for millennia, adapted creatively to changing circumstances and resisted external pressures for generations. The introduction of horses transformed frontier warfare, the Drakensberg became one of the last strongholds of resistance, and places such as Fort Nottingham emerged as focal points in the struggle between expanding colonial society and indigenous hunter-gatherers. By the close of the nineteenth century, however, the independent San communities of the region had largely disappeared, leaving behind a rich legacy preserved in historical records, oral traditions and the magnificent rock art of the Maloti–Drakensberg.